Zero Defects (or ZD) is a collaborative programme or philosophy within an organisation, whereby everyone works together towards the ideal goal of there being no defects in quality. As a management-led program to eliminate defects in industrial production, the concept enjoyed brief popularity in American industry from 1964 to the early 1970s. Quality expert Philip Crosby later incorporated it into his "Absolutes of Quality Management" and it enjoyed a renaissance in the American automobile industry—as a performance goal more than as a program—in the 1990s. Although applicable to any type of enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within supply chains wherever large volumes of components are being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are good examples).